Perspectives on the origins of merchant capitalism in Europe -- Orthodox Marxism -- Brennerism (or the Brenner approach) -- The modernization theory -- World-systems analysis -- The inter-city-state system of the Middle Ages -- Tentative conclusions -- The political economies of China and Europe compared -- The Chinese socioeconomic revolution during the Sung dynasty (circa 900-1280) -- China and the Mongols -- Ming China and Europe : divergent paths -- Conclusions vis-âa-vis European capitalism -- The political economies of South Asia and Europe compared -- Trade and commodity flows in the South Asian region -- States and state structures in South Asia -- The strategies of elites in South Asia and Europe -- The impact of the perilous frontier -- Conclusions -- The political economies of Western Europe and Northern Africa compared -- Northern Africa and the Sudanic states (circa 1200-1500) -- North African cities, states, and the balance of power in the Mediterranean -- Conclusions -- Conclusion : Was the Western-European city-state in the Middle Ages a European miracle?