1. Introduction -- 2. Basic statistics and probability -- 3. Basic issues in surveys -- 4. Ethics of surveys of human populations -- 5. Design a survey -- 6. Methods for conducting surveys of human populations -- 7. Focus groups -- 8. Design of survey instruments -- 9. Design of questions and question wording -- 10. Special issues for qualitative and preference surveys -- 11. Design of data collection procedures -- 12. Pilot surveys and pretests -- 13. Sample design and sampling -- 14. Repetitive surveys -- 15. Survey economics -- 16. Survey implementation -- 17. Web-based surveys -- 18. Coding and data entry -- 19. Data expansion and weighting -- 20. Nonresponse -- 21. Measuring data quality -- 22. Future directions in survey procedures -- 23. Documenting and archiving -- References -- Index.

Machine generated contents note: 1.Introduction -- 1.1.The purpose of this book -- 1.2.Scope of the book -- 1.3.Survey statistics -- 2.Basic statistics and probability -- 2.1.Some definitions in statistics -- 2.1.1.Censuses and surveys -- 2.2.Describing data -- 2.2.1.Types of scales -- Nominal scales -- Ordinal scales -- Interval scales -- Ratio scales -- Measurement scales -- 2.2.2.Data presentation: graphics -- 2.2.3.Data presentation: non-graphical -- Measures of magnitude -- Frequencies and proportions -- Central measures of data -- Measures of dispersion -- The normal distribution -- Some useful properties of variances and standard deviations -- Proportions or probabilities -- Data transformations -- Covariance and correlation -- Coefficient of variation -- Other measures of variability -- Alternatives to Sturges' rule -- 3.Basic issues in surveys -- 3.1.Need for survey methods -- 3.1.1.A definition of sampling methodology -- 3.2.Surveys and censuses -- 3.2.1.Costs --

Contents note continued: 3.2.2.Time -- 3.3.Representativeness -- 3.3.1.Randomness -- 3.3.2.Probability sampling -- Sources of random numbers -- 3.4.Errors and bias -- 3.4.1.Sample design and sampling error -- 3.4.2.Bias -- 3.4.3.Avoiding bias -- 3.5.Some important definitions -- 4.Ethics of surveys of human populations -- 4.1.Why ethics? -- 4.2.Codes of ethics or practice -- 4.3.Potential threats to confidentiality -- 4.3.1.Retaining detail and confidentiality -- 4.4.Informed consent -- 4.5.Conclusions -- 5.Designing a survey -- 5.1.Components of survey design -- 5.2.Defining the survey purpose -- 5.2.1.Components of survey purpose -- Data needs -- Comparability or innovation -- Defining data needs -- Data needs in human subject surveys -- Survey timing -- Geographic bounds for the survey -- 5.3.Trade-offs in survey design -- 6.Methods for conducting surveys of human populations -- 6.1.Overview -- 6.2.Face-to-face interviews -- 6.3.Postal surveys -- 6.4.Telephone surveys --

Contents note continued: 6.5.Internet surveys -- 6.6.Compound survey methods -- 6.6.1.Pre-recruitment contact -- 6.6.2.Recruitment -- Random digit dialling -- 6.6.3.Survey delivery -- 6.6.4.Data collection -- 6.6.5.An example -- 6.7.Mixed-mode surveys -- 6.7.1.Increasing response and reducing bias -- 6.8.Observational surveys -- 7.Focus groups -- 7.1.Introduction -- 7.2.Definition of a focus group -- 7.2.1.The size and number of focus groups -- 7.2.2.How a focus group functions -- 7.2.3.Analysing the focus group discussions -- 7.2.4.Some disadvantages of focus groups -- 7.3.Using focus groups to design a survey -- 7.4.Using focus groups to evaluate a survey -- 7.5.Summary -- 8.Design of survey instruments -- 8.1.Scope of this chapter -- 8.2.Question type -- 8.2.1.Classification and behaviour questions -- Mitigating threatening questions -- 8.2.2.Memory or recall error -- 8.3.Question format -- 8.3.1.Open questions -- 8.3.2.Field-coded questions -- 8.3.3.Closed questions --

Contents note continued: 8.4.Physical layout of the survey instrument -- 8.4.1.Introduction -- 8.4.2.Question ordering -- Opening questions -- Body of the survey -- The end of the questionnaire -- 8.4.3.Some general issues on question layout -- Overall format -- Appearance of the survey -- Front cover -- Spatial layout -- Choice of typeface -- Use of colour and graphics -- Question numbering -- Page breaks -- Repeated questions -- Instructions -- Show cards -- Time of the interview -- Precoding -- End of the survey -- Some final comments on questionnaire layout -- 9.Design of questions and question wording -- 9.1.Introduction -- 9.2.Issues in writing questions -- 9.2.1.Requiring an answer -- 9.2.2.Ready answers -- 9.2.3.Accurate recall and reporting -- 9.2.4.Revealing the data -- 9.2.5.Motivation to answer -- 9.2.6.Influences on response categories -- 9.2.7.Use of categories and other responses -- Ordered and unordered categories -- 9.3.Principles for writing questions --

Contents note continued: 9.3.1.Use simple language -- 9.3.2.Number of words -- 9.3.3.Avoid using vague words -- 9.3.4.Avoid using `Tick all that apply' formats -- 9.3.5.Develop response categories that are mutually exclusive and exhaustive -- 9.3.6.Make sure that questions are technically correct -- 9.3.7.Do not ask respondents to say `Yes' in order to say `No' -- 9.3.8.Avoid double-barrelled questions -- 9.4.Conclusion -- 10.Special issues for qualitative and preference surveys -- 10.1.Introduction -- 10.2.Designing qualitative questions -- 10.2.1.Scaling questions -- 10.3.Stated response questions -- 10.3.1.The hypothetical situation -- 10.3.2.Determining attribute levels -- 10.3.3.Number of choice alternatives or scenarios -- 10.3.4.Other issues of concern -- Data inconsistency -- Lexicographic responses -- Random responses -- 10.4.Some concluding comments on stated response survey design -- 11.Design of data collection procedures -- 11.1.Introduction --

Contents note continued: 11.2.Contacting respondents -- 11.2.1.Pre-notification contacts -- 11.2.2.Number and type of contacts -- Nature of reminder contacts -- Postal surveys -- Postal surveys with telephone recruitment -- Telephone interviews -- Face-to-face interviews -- Internet surveys -- 11.3.Who should respond to the survey? -- 11.3.1.Targeted person -- 11.3.2.Full household surveys -- Proxy reporting -- 11.4.Defining a complete response -- 11.4.1.Completeness of the data items -- 11.4.2.Completeness of aggregate sampling units -- 11.5.Sample replacement -- 11.5.1.When to replace a sample unit -- 11.5.2.How to replace a sample -- 11.6.Incentives -- 11.6.1.Recommendations on incentives -- 11.7.Respondent burden -- 11.7.1.Past experience -- 11.7.2.Appropriate moment -- 11.7.3.Perceived relevance -- 11.7.4.Difficulty -- Physical difficulty -- Intellectual difficulty -- Emotional difficulty -- Reducing difficulty -- 11.7.5.External factors --

Contents note continued: Attitudes and opinions of others -- The `feel good' effect -- Appropriateness of the medium -- 11.7.6.Mitigating respondent burden -- 11.8.Concluding comments -- 12.Pilot surveys and pretests -- 12.1.Introduction -- 12.2.Definitions -- 12.3.Selecting respondents for pretests and pilot surveys -- 12.3.1.Selecting respondents -- 12.3.2.Sample size -- Pilot surveys -- Pretests -- 12.4.Costs and time requirements of pretests and pilot surveys -- 12.5.Concluding comments -- 13.Sample design and sampling -- 13.1.Introduction -- 13.2.Sampling frames -- 13.3.Random sampling procedures -- 13.3.1.Initial considerations -- 13.3.2.The normal law of error -- 13.4.Random sampling methods -- 13.4.1.Simple random sampling -- Drawing the sample -- Estimating population statistics and sampling errors -- Example -- Sampling from a finite population -- Sampling error of ratios and proportions -- Defining the sample size -- Examples -- 13.4.2.Stratified sampling --

Contents note continued: Types of stratified samples -- Study domains and strata -- Weighted means and variances -- Stratified sampling with a uniform sampling fraction -- Drawing the sample -- Estimating population statistics and sampling errors -- Pre- and post-stratification -- Example -- Equal allocation -- Summary of proportionate sampling -- Stratified sampling with variable sampling fraction -- Drawing the sample -- Estimating population statistics and sampling errors -- Non-coincident study domains and strata -- Optimum allocation and economic design -- Example -- Survey costs differing by stratum -- Example -- Practical issues in drawing disproportionate samples -- Concluding comments on disproportionate sampling -- 13.4.3.Multistage sampling -- Drawing a multistage sample -- Requirements for multistage sampling -- Estimating population values and sampling statistics -- Example -- Concluding comments on multistage sampling -- 13.5.Quasi-random sampling methods --

Contents note continued: 13.5.1.Cluster sampling -- Equal clusters: population values and standard errors -- Example -- The effects of clustering -- Unequal clusters: population values and standard errors -- Random selection of unequal clusters -- Example -- Stratified sampling of unequal clusters -- Paired selection of unequal-sized clusters -- 13.5.2.Systematic sampling -- Population values and standard errors in a systematic sample -- Simple random model -- Stratified random model -- Paired selection model -- Successive difference model -- Example -- 13.5.3.Choice-based sampling -- 13.6.Non-random sampling methods -- 13.6.1.Quota sampling -- 13.6.2.Intentional, judgemental, or expert samples -- 13.6.3.Haphazard samples -- 13.6.4.Convenience samples -- 13.7.Summary -- 14.Repetitive surveys -- 14.1.Introduction -- 14.2.Non-overlapping samples -- 14.3.Incomplete overlap -- 14.4.Subsampling on the second and subsequent occasions -- 14.5.Complete overlap: a panel --

Contents note continued: 14.6.Practical issues in designing and conducting panel surveys -- 14.6.1.Attrition -- Replacement of panel members lost by attrition -- Reducing losses due to attrition -- 14.6.2.Contamination -- 14.6.3.Conditioning -- 14.7.Advantages and disadvantages of panels -- 14.8.Methods for administering practical panel surveys -- 14.9.Continuous surveys -- 15.Survey economics -- 15.1.Introduction -- 15.2.Cost elements in survey design -- 15.3.Trade-offs in survey design -- 15.3.1.Postal surveys -- 15.3.2.Telephone recruitment with a postal survey with or without telephone retrieval -- 15.3.3.Face-to-face interview -- 15.3.4.More on potential trade-offs -- 15.4.Concluding comments -- 16.Survey implementation -- 16.1.Introduction -- 16.2.Interviewer selection and training -- 16.2.1.Interviewer selection -- 16.2.2.Interviewer training -- 16.2.3.Interviewer monitoring -- 16.3.Record keeping -- 16.4.Survey supervision -- 16.5.Survey publicity --

Contents note continued: 16.5.1.Frequently asked questions, fact sheet, or brochure -- 16.6.Storage of survey forms -- 16.6.1.Identification numbers -- 16.7.Issues for surveys using posted materials -- 16.8.Issues for surveys using telephone contact -- 16.8.1.Caller ID -- 16.8.2.Answering machines -- 16.8.3.Repeated requests for callback -- 16.9.Data on incomplete responses -- 16.10.Checking survey responses -- 16.11.Times to avoid data collection -- 16.12.Summary comments on survey implementation -- 17.Web-based surveys -- 17.1.Introduction -- 17.2.The internet as an optional response mechanism -- 17.3.Some design issues for Web surveys -- 17.3.1.Differences between paper and internet surveys -- 17.3.2.Question and response -- 17.3.3.Ability to fill in the Web survey in multiple sittings -- 17.3.4.Progress tracking -- 17.3.5.Pre-filled responses -- 17.3.6.Confidentiality in Web-based surveys -- 17.3.7.Pictures, maps, etc. on Web surveys --

Contents note continued: Animation in survey pictures and maps -- 17.3.8.Browser software -- User interface design -- Creating mock-ups -- Page loading time -- 17.4.Some design principles for Web surveys -- 17.5.Concluding comments -- 18.Coding and data entry -- 18.1.Introduction -- 18.2.Coding -- 18.2.1.Coding of missing values -- 18.2.2.Use of zeros and blanks in coding -- 18.2.3.Coding consistency -- Binary variables -- Numeric variables -- 18.2.4.Coding complex variables -- 18.2.5.Geocoding -- Requesting address details for other places than home -- Pre-coding of buildings -- Interactive gazetteers -- Other forms of geocoding assistance -- Locating by mapping software -- 18.2.6.Methods for creating codes -- 18.3.Data entry -- 18.4.Data repair -- 19.Data expansion and weighting -- 19.1.Introduction -- 19.2.Data expansion -- 19.2.1.Simple random sampling -- 19.2.2.Stratified sampling -- 19.2.3.Multistage sampling -- 19.2.4.Cluster samples -- 19.2.5.Other sampling methods --

Contents note continued: 19.3.Data weighting -- 19.3.1.Weighting with unknown population totals -- An example -- A second example -- 19.3.2.Weighting with known populations -- An example -- 19.4.Summary -- 20.Nonresponse -- 20.1.Introduction -- 20.2.Unit nonresponse -- 20.2.1.Calculating response rates -- Classifying responses to a survey -- Calculating response rates -- 20.2.2.Reducing nonresponse and increasing response rates -- Design issues affecting nonresponse -- Survey publicity -- Use of incentives -- Use of reminders and repeat contacts -- Personalisation -- Summary -- 20.2.3.Nonresponse surveys -- 20.3.Item nonresponse -- 20.3.1.Data repair -- Flagging repaired variables -- Inference -- Imputation -- Historical imputation -- Average imputation -- Ratio imputation -- Regression imputation -- Cold-deck imputation -- Hot-deck imputation -- Expectation maximisation -- Multiple imputation -- Imputation using neural networks -- Summary of imputation methods --

Contents note continued: 20.3.2.A final note on item nonresponse -- Strategies to obtain age and income -- Age -- Income -- 21.Measuring data quality -- 21.1.Introduction -- 21.2.General measures of data quality -- 21.2.1.Missing value statistic -- 21.2.2.Data cleaning statistic -- 21.2.3.Coverage error -- 21.2.4.Sample bias -- 21.3.Specific measures of data quality -- 21.3.1.Non-mobility rates -- 21.3.2.Trip rates and activity rates -- 21.3.3.Proxy reporting -- 21.4.Validation surveys -- 21.4.1.Follow-up questions -- 21.4.2.Independent measurement -- 21.5.Adherence to quality measures and guidance -- 22.Future directions in survey procedures -- 22.1.Dangers of forecasting new directions -- 22.2.Some current issues -- 22.2.1.Reliance on telephones -- Threats to the use of telephone surveys -- Conclusions on reliance on telephones -- 22.2.2.Language and literacy -- Language -- Literacy -- 22.2.3.Mixed-mode surveys -- 22.2.4.Use of administrative data -- 22.2.5.Proxy reporting --

Contents note continued: 22.3.Some possible future directions -- 22.3.1.A GPS survey as a potential substitute for a household travel survey -- The effect of multiple observations of each respondent on sample size -- 23.Documenting and archiving -- 23.1.Introduction -- 23.2.Documentation or the creation of metadata -- 23.2.1.Descriptive metadata -- 23.2.2.Preservation metadata -- 23.2.3.Geospatial metadata -- 23.3.Archiving of data.