1.The nature and development of international law -- Law and politics in the world community -- The role of force -- The international system -- The function of politics -- Historical development -- Early origins -- The Middle Ages and the Renaissance -- The founders of modern international law -- Positivism and naturalism -- The nineteenth century -- The twentieth century -- Communist approaches to international law -- The `Third World' -- Suggestions for further reading -- 2.International law today -- The expanding legal scope of international concern -- Modern theories and interpretations -- Positive Law and Natural Law -- New approaches -- The fragmentation of international law? -- Conclusion -- Suggestions for further reading -- 3.Sources -- Custom -- Introduction -- The material fact -- What is state practice? -- Opinio juris -- Protest, acquiescence and change in customary law -- Regional and local custom -- Treaties --

General principles of law -- Equity and international law -- Judicial decisions -- Writers -- Other possible sources of international law -- The International Law Commission -- Other bodies -- Unilateral acts -- Hierarchy of sources and jus cogens -- Suggestions for further reading -- 4.International law and municipal law -- The theories -- The role of municipal rules in international law -- International law before municipal courts -- The United Kingdom -- Customary international law -- Treaties -- The United States -- Other countries -- (i).Other common law and related legal systems -- (ii).Civil law systems -- (iii).Conclusion -- Justiciability, act of state and related doctrines -- Executive Certificates -- Suggestions for further reading -- 5.The subjects of international law -- Legal personality -- introduction -- States -- Creation of statehood -- Self-determination and the criteria of statehood -- Recognition -- Extinction of statehood --

The fundamental rights of states -- Independence -- Equality -- Peaceful co-existence -- Protectorates and protected states -- Federal states -- Sui generis territorial entities -- Mandated and trust territories -- Germany 1945 -- Condominium -- International administration of territories -- Taiwan -- The `Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus' (TRNC) -- The Saharan Arab Democratic Republic -- Kosovo -- Palestine -- Various secessionist claimants -- Associations of states -- Conclusions -- Special cases -- The Sovereign Order of Malta -- The Holy See and the Vatican City -- Insurgents and belligerents -- National liberation movements (NLMs) -- International public companies -- Transnational corporations -- The right of all peoples to self-determination -- The establishment of the legal right -- The definition of self-determination -- Individuals -- International organisations --

The acquisition, nature and consequences of legal personality -- some conclusions -- Suggestions for further reading -- 6.The international protection of human rights -- The nature of human rights -- Ideological approaches to human rights in international law -- The development of international human rights law -- Some basic principles -- Domestic jurisdiction -- The rule as to the exhaustion of domestic remedies -- Priorities of rights -- Customary international law and human rights -- Evolving principles -- The United Nations system -- general -- The protection of the collective rights of groups and individuals -- Prohibition of genocide -- Prohibition of discrimination -- The principle of self-determination as a human right -- The protection of minorities -- Other suggested collective rights -- The United Nations system -- implementation -- Political bodies -- general -- The Commission on Human Rights (1946--2006) -- The Human Rights Council --

Expert bodies established by UN organs -- The Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights -- The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights -- Expert bodies established under particular treaties -- The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination -- The Human Rights Committee -- The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women -- The Committee Against Torture -- The Committee on the Rights of the Child -- The Committee on the Protection of Migrant Workers -- The Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities -- The Committee on Enforced Disappearances -- Conclusions -- The specialised agencies -- The International Labour Organization -- The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization -- Suggestions for further reading -- 7.The regional protection of human rights -- Europe -- The Council of Europe -- The European Convention on Human Rights -- The convention system --

The European Social Charter -- The European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment -- The Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities -- The European Union -- The OSCE (Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe) -- The CIS Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms -- The Human Rights Chamber of Bosnia and Herzegovina -- The Inter-American Convention on Human Rights -- The Banjul Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights -- The Arab Charter on Human Rights -- Suggestions for further reading -- 8.Individual criminal responsibility in international law -- International criminal courts and tribunals -- The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) -- The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) -- The International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals -- The International Criminal Court (ICC) --

Hybrid courts and other internationalised domestic courts and tribunals -- The Special Court for Sierra Leone -- Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia -- Kosovo Regulation 64 panels -- East Timor Special Panels for Serious Crimes -- The Bosnia War Crimes Chamber -- The Special Tribunal for Lebanon -- The Iraqi High Tribunal -- The Serbian War Crimes Chamber -- International crimes -- Genocide -- War crimes -- Crimes against humanity -- Aggression -- Conclusion -- fair trial provisions -- Suggestions for further reading -- 9.Recognition -- Recognition of states -- Recognition of governments -- De facto and de jure recognition -- Premature recognition -- Implied recognition -- Conditional recognition -- Collective recognition -- Withdrawal of recognition -- Non-recognition -- The legal effects of recognition -- Internationally -- Internally -- The UK -- The USA -- Suggestions for further reading -- 10.Territory --

The concept of territory in international law -- Territorial sovereignty -- New states and title to territory -- The acquisition of additional territory -- Boundary treaties and boundary awards -- Accretion -- Cession -- Conquest and the use of force -- The exercise of effective control -- Intertemporal law -- Critical date -- Sovereign activities (effectivites) -- The role of subsequent conduct: recognition, acquiescence and estoppel -- Conclusions -- Territorial integrity, self-determination and sundry claims -- The doctrine of uti possidetis -- Beyond uti possidetis -- International boundary rivers -- `The common heritage of mankind' -- The polar regions -- Leases and servitudes -- The law of outer space -- The definition and delimitation of outer space -- The regime of outer space -- Telecommunications -- Suggestions for further reading -- 11.The law of the sea -- The territorial sea -- Internal waters -- Baselines -- Bays -- Islands --

Archipelagic states -- The width of the territorial sea -- The juridical nature of the territorial sea -- The right of innocent passage -- Jurisdiction over foreign ships -- International straits -- The contiguous zone -- The exclusive economic zone -- The continental shelf -- Definition -- The rights and duties of the coastal state -- Maritime delimitation -- Conclusion -- Landlocked states -- The high seas -- Jurisdiction on the high seas -- Exceptions to the exclusivity of flag-state jurisdiction -- Right of visit -- Piracy -- The slave trade -- Unauthorised broadcasting -- Hot pursuit -- Collisions -- Treaty rights and agreements -- Pollution -- Straddling stocks -- The international seabed -- Introduction -- The 1982 Law of the Sea Convention (Part XI) -- The Reciprocating States Regime -- The 1994 Agreement on Implementation of the Seabed Provisions of the Convention on the Law of the Sea -- The International Seabed Authority --

Settlement of disputes -- The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea -- Suggestions for further reading -- 12.Jurisdiction -- The principle of domestic jurisdiction -- Legislative, executive and judicial jurisdiction -- Civil jurisdiction -- Criminal jurisdiction -- The territorial principle -- The nationality principle -- The passive personality principle -- The protective principle -- The universality principle -- War crimes, crimes against peace and crimes against humanity -- Treaties providing for jurisdiction -- Illegal apprehension of suspects and the exercise of jurisdiction -- The US Alien Tort Statute -- Extradition -- Extraterritorial jurisdiction -- Suggestions for further reading -- 13.Immunities from jurisdiction -- Sovereign immunity -- The absolute immunity approach -- The restrictive approach -- Sovereign and non-sovereign acts -- State immunity and violations of human rights -- Commercial acts -- Contracts of employment --

Other non-immunity areas -- The personality issue -- instrumentalities and parts of the state -- The personality issue -- immunity for senior government figures -- Waiver of immunity -- Pre-judgment attachment -- Immunity from execution -- The burden and standard of proof -- Diplomatic law -- The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 -- The inviolability of the premises of the mission -- The diplomatic bag -- Diplomatic immunities -- property -- Diplomatic immunities -- personal -- Waiver of immunity -- Consular privileges and immunities: the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, 1963 -- The Convention on Special Missions, 1969 -- The Vienna Convention on the Representation of States in their Relations with International Organisations of a Universal Character, 1975 -- The immunities of international organisations -- Suggestions for further reading -- 14.State responsibility -- The nature of state responsibility -- The question of fault --

Attribution -- Ultra vires acts -- State control and responsibility -- Mob violence, insurrections and civil wars -- Circumstances precluding wrongfulness -- Invocation of state responsibility -- The consequences of internationally wrongful acts -- Cessation -- Reparation -- Serious breaches of peremptory norms (jus cogens) -- Diplomatic protection and nationality of claims -- The exhaustion of local remedies -- The treatment of aliens -- The relevant standard of treatment -- The protection of foreign property and investments -- The property question -- The nature of expropriation -- Public purposes -- Compensation -- Bilateral investment treaties -- Lump-sum agreements -- Non-discrimination -- The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency -- Suggestions for further reading -- 15.International environmental law -- State responsibility and the environment -- The basic duty of states -- The appropriate standard -- Damage caused --

Liability for damage caused by private persons -- Prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities -- The problems of the state responsibility approach -- International co-operation -- Atmospheric pollution -- Ozone depletion and climate change -- Outer space -- International watercourses -- Ultra-hazardous activities -- Nuclear activities -- The provision of information -- The provision of assistance -- Nuclear safety -- Civil liability -- Hazardous wastes -- Marine pollution -- Pollution from ships -- Suggestions for further reading -- 16.The law of treaties -- The making of treaties -- Formalities -- Consent -- Consent by signature -- Consent by exchange of instruments -- Consent by ratification -- Consent by accession -- Reservations to treaties -- Entry into force of treaties -- The application of treaties -- Third states -- The amendment and modiFication of treaties -- Treaty interpretation --

Invalidity, termination and suspension of the operation of treaties -- General provisions -- Invalidity of treaties -- Municipal law -- Error -- Fraud and corruption -- Coercion -- Jus cogens -- Consequences of invalidity -- The termination of treaties -- Termination by treaty provision or consent -- Material breach -- Supervening impossibility of performance -- Fundamental change of circumstances -- Dispute settlement -- Treaties between states and international organisations -- Suggestions for further reading -- 17.State succession -- Continuity and succession -- Succession to treaties -- Categories of treaties: territorial, political and other treaties -- Succession to treaties generally -- Absorption and merger -- Cession of territory from one state to another -- Separation from an existing state to form a new state or states -- `Newly independent states' -- Dissolution of states -- International human rights treaties --

Succession with respect to matters other than treaties -- Membership of international organisations -- Succession to assets and debts -- State property -- State archives -- Public debt -- Private rights -- State succession and nationality -- State succession and responsibility -- Hong Kong -- Suggestions for further reading -- 18.The settlement of disputes by peaceful means -- Diplomatic methods of dispute settlement -- Negotiation -- Good offices and mediation -- Inquiry -- Conciliation -- International institutions and dispute settlement -- Regional organisations -- The African Union (Organization of African Unity) -- The Organization of American States -- The Arab League -- Europe -- International organisations and facilities of limited competence -- Binding methods of dispute settlement -- Arbitration -- Suggestions for further reading -- 19.The International Court of Justice -- The organisation of the Court -- The jurisdiction of the Court --

General -- The nature of a legal dispute -- Contentious jurisdiction -- Article 36(1) -- Article 36(2) -- Sources of law, propriety and legal interest -- Evidence -- Provisional measures -- Counter-claims -- Third-party intervention -- Remedies -- Enforcement -- Application for interpretation of a judgment -- Application for revision of a judgment -- Examination of a situation after the judgment -- The advisory jurisdiction of the Court -- The role of the Court -- Proliferation of courts and tribunals -- Suggestions for further reading -- 20.International law and the use of force by states -- Law and force from the `just war' to the United Nations -- The UN Charter -- `Force' -- Categories of force -- Retorsion -- Reprisals -- The right of self-defence -- The protection of nationals abroad -- Conclusions -- Collective self-defence -- Intervention -- Civil wars -- Aid to the authorities of a state -- Aid to rebels --

The situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo -- Humanitarian intervention -- Terrorism and international law -- Suggestions for further reading -- 21.International humanitarian law -- Development -- The scope of protection under international humanitarian law -- The wounded and sick -- Prisoners of war -- Protection of civilians and occupation -- The conduct of hostilities -- Armed conflicts: international and internal -- Non-international armed conflict -- Enforcement of humanitarian law -- Conclusion -- Suggestions for further reading -- 22.The United Nations -- The UN system -- The Security Council -- The General Assembly -- Other principal organs -- The peaceful settlement of disputes -- The League of Nations -- The United Nations system -- The Security Council -- The General Assembly -- The Secretary-General -- Peacekeeping and observer missions -- Conclusion -- The collective security system -- The Security Council --

Determination of the situation -- Chapter VII measures -- Targeted sanctions and human rights -- Implied authorisation -- Responsibility to protect and humanitarian intervention by the UN -- The use of force in non-enforcement situations -- The range of UN actions from humanitarian assistance to enforcement -- conclusions -- The Security Council, international law and the International Court of Justice -- The role of the General Assembly -- The UN and regional arrangements and agencies -- Suggestions for further reading -- 23.International institutions -- Introduction -- Some legal aspects of international organisations -- Personality -- The constituent instruments -- The powers of international institutions -- The applicable law -- The responsibility of international institutions -- Liability of member states -- The accountability of international institutions -- Privileges and immunities -- Dissolution -- Succession -- Suggestions for further reading.